Cleopatra

INTRODUCTION

Cleopatra (69-30 BC), ill-fated queen of Egypt (51-30 BC), the last monarch of Egypt and the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty. In attempting to maintain Egypt’s independence from Rome, Cleopatra formed alliances (famously involving love affairs) with the Roman generals and statesmen Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Her strategy ultimately failed, however, as Caesar’s heir Octavian (who became the first emperor of Rome as Augustus in 27 BC) conquered Egypt and made it a Roman province. Faced with a crushing defeat, Cleopatra committed suicide.

RISE TO THE THRONE
Cleopatra descended from a long line of Macedonian (Greek) rulers whose reign over Egypt began in 323 BC with the death of Alexander the Great. That year, Alexander’s Macedonian generals divided his vast empire among themselves, with Ptolemy taking Egypt as his share. Thereafter the Ptolemies ruled from the port city of Alexandria, a flourishing cultural and commercial center that Alexander had founded in 332 BC.

However, by Cleopatra’s time the Ptolemaic dynasty was fraught with internal power struggles, and its grip over Egypt was weakening. In addition, Rome was relentlessly expanding its domains and wanted to control Egypt and its vast wealth. In 58 BC the Romans took over Cyprus, which had been part of the Ptolemies’ empire for more than 200 years. Cleopatra’s father, Ptolemy XII, ascended to the throne and maintained Egypt’s nominal status as an independent kingdom only by giving generous bribes to powerful Roman senators.

Ptolemy XII died in July 51 BC. In accordance with his wishes, Cleopatra succeeded jointly to the throne with her eldest brother, Ptolemy XIII, after the two were married. The Ptolemaic dynasty had long followed the Egyptian custom of marriage between brother and sister in ruling families. In this way, the Ptolemies had maintained a purely Macedonian bloodline. Cleopatra was the first of her dynasty to learn the Egyptian language.

Cleopatra became queen of Egypt at the age of 18, while her co-ruling brother was only about 10. At first Cleopatra dominated the throne, but in the third year of her reign Ptolemy XIII’s chief advisers Pothinus and Achillas contrived against her, driving her into exile in Syria (then a Roman province). Not easily deterred, Cleopatra raised an army to regain her rightful place on the throne. In 48 BC the forces of Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra met at Pelusium, at the eastern edge of the Nile Delta, and prepared for battle. However, they received messages from Roman general Julius Caesar urging them to return to Alexandria to settle their differences. Caesar, who had arrived at Alexandria in pursuit of his defeated rival Pompey, claimed the right to arbitrate the quarrel as the representative of Rome. Ptolemy returned to Alexandria, leaving Cleopatra behind.

CLEOPATRA AND CAESAR
Determined to present her case to Caesar, Cleopatra secretly sailed to Alexandria, entering the harbor at night in a small boat with her attendant Apollodorus. Then she rolled herself up in a carpet (or bedding, according to some sources), and Apollodorus smuggled her into Caesar’s quarters in the royal palace. Her ingenuity, intelligence, and powers of persuasion must have impressed Caesar, for the next day he had Cleopatra restored to the throne in joint rule with Ptolemy XIII.

However, Pothinus and Achillas fomented a rebellion against Caesar, surrounding him in Alexandria with about 20,000 soldiers. During the ensuing Alexandrian War in 48-47 BC, Pothinus was executed on Caesar’s orders and Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile in the course of battle. With this victory Caesar easily could have declared Egypt a Roman province, but instead he retained Cleopatra as queen. Cleopatra was obligated by custom to marry her other younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, who was about 12 years old.

Meanwhile, Caesar and Cleopatra had become lovers, and Caesar delayed attending to important matters of state to remain in Egypt. Cleopatra took him on a sightseeing cruise up the Nile, sailing the royal barge and 400 of Caesar’s ships in a display of power to her people. In 47 BC Cleopatra gave birth to a son, naming him Ptolemy Caesarion (“Little Caesar”).

The following year Cleopatra joined Caesar in Rome, bringing Caesarion and Ptolemy XIV with her. She lived in one of Caesar’s villas as his mistress and ruled Egypt by dispatch. Meanwhile, many Romans grew suspicious of Caesar’s near-absolute power. Rumors spread that he intended to subvert the Roman Republic and establish a monarchy, ruling as a king with Cleopatra, a despised foreigner, as his queen. In 44 BC a mob of Roman senators assassinated Caesar. Cleopatra quickly returned to Egypt, her power no longer secured by Caesar’s influence. Ptolemy XIV died suddenly in 43 BC, and Cleopatra is said to have poisoned him. She made her toddler son Caesarion co-regent, crowning him as Ptolemy XV.

CLEOPATRA AND ANTONY

Roman Civil War
Following Caesar’s death, the Roman world plunged into civil war. The chief conspirators in his assassination, the Roman senators Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, believed his death would restore the domination of the Roman Senate, taking power out of the hands of the generals.

However, a triumvirate formed in 43 BC to defend Caesar’s legacy. The triumvirate comprised Caesar’s chief deputy and co-consul Mark Antony, Caesar’s grandnephew and designated heir Gaius Octavian, and Antony’s ally Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. The three men joined their forces to fight against those of Brutus and Cassius.

Cleopatra was approached for support by Cassius, who vied for control over Syria against Publius Cornelius Dolabella, an officer who claimed the province for the triumvirate. Cleopatra sided with Dolabella and sent three legions to his aid, but he lost his claim to Syria and the troops went over to Cassius. Cleopatra later sailed from Alexandria with her fleet to offer assistance but a storm forced her to turn back. Nevertheless, in October 42 BC Antony and Octavian emerged victorious in the Battle of Philippi, and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. The three victors then divided the Roman domains among themselves, with Antony taking the eastern part.

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